Distribution of law-making powers between the Union and States

The Indian Constitution distributes law-making powers between the Union and States using three lists (Union, State, and Concurrent), with the Union Parliament having exclusive power on the Union List and both Union and State legislatures on the Concurrent List, while States have exclusive power on the State List. In case of conflicts, Union laws on the Concurrent List prevail, and the Union has greater power, especially in matters of national interest. 

1. Distribution of Legislative Powers:

The Constitution outlines the distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the States in the Seventh Schedule, which contains three lists: 

Union List (List I): This list contains subjects of national importance, where the Union Parliament has exclusive power to legislate. Examples include defense, foreign affairs, currency, and banking. 

State List (List II): This list contains subjects of state importance, where the State legislatures have exclusive power to legislate. Examples include police, local government, trade, and agriculture. 

Concurrent List (List III): This list contains subjects of common interest, where both the Union Parliament and State legislatures have the power to legislate. Examples include criminal law, civil procedure, education, and economic planning. 

Residuary Powers:

The Constitution vests residuary powers (powers not specifically mentioned in any of the three lists) with the Union government. 

2. Resolving Conflicts:

(a) Concurrent List Conflicts:

If a conflict arises between a law made by the Union Parliament and a law made by a State legislature on a subject in the Concurrent List, the Union law prevails. 

State Law on Concurrent List:

However, if a State law on a subject in the Concurrent List has been reserved for the consideration of the President and received his consent before the Union law on the same subject, the State law will prevail. 

(b) National Interest:

In matters of national interest, the Union Parliament can legislate on subjects in the State List with a two-thirds majority. 

(c) Emergency:

During a proclamation of emergency, the Union Parliament can legislate on subjects in the State List. 

(d) Inter-State Council:

The Inter-State Council, established under Article 263, provides a platform for Union and State representatives to discuss and resolve disputes. 

(e) Supreme Court:

The Supreme Court can adjudicate disputes between the Union and States, or between States, under Article 131. 

(f) Harmonious Interpretation:

The courts must, wherever possible, interpret a statute, rule, or regulation's many parts logically and sustain them rather than invalidating the entire provision. 

(g) Doctrine of Territorial Nexus:

A state legislature can only make laws for its purpose. The doctrine of Territorial Nexus can be only valid if certain conditions are fulfilled. 

(h) Extra-territorial laws:

The Union has the power to make even extra-territorial laws, but the State does not have the same power. 

Powers, Privileges and Immunities of the Member of the Parliament

Members of Parliament in India, as outlined in Article 105 of the Constitution, enjoy certain powers, privileges, and immunities to ensure they can effectively discharge their duties without undue interference, including freedom of speech, immunity from legal proceedings for statements made in Parliament, and protection from arrest during certain periods. 

Powers of a Member of Parliament:

Legislative Powers:

• Participate in debates in the parliament 
• Question the government on matters of public importance. 
• Initiate legislation in the form of bills and motions. 
• Oversee government spending to have a control over it. 

Representative Powers:

• Represent the interests and aspirations of their constituencies. 
• Advocate for policies and programs that benefit their constituents. 

Other Powers:

• Participate in parliamentary committees that investigate specific issues or draft legislation. 
• Participate in Elections. 

Parliamentary Privileges and Immunities

Parliamentary privileges and immunities refer to the special rights, freedoms, and exemptions granted to members of Parliament (MPs) and members of state legislatures in India to enable them to perform their duties efficiently and without interference.  

These privileges ensure the independence, dignity, and effective functioning of legislative institutions in a democratic framework. 

Sources of Parliamentary Privileges: 

1. Constitution of India: Articles 105, 122, 194 and 212 has provisions for various privileges for the MPs which include freedom of speech, immunity from legal proceedings amongst many others.
2. Parliamentary Conventions (based on British parliamentary practices as of 1947). 
3. Statutory Laws (laws enacted by Parliament). 
4. Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha). 
5. Judicial Interpretations (Supreme Court and High Court rulings). 

Parliamentary Privileges Enjoyed by MPs 

1. Freedom of Speech: Members have the right to freely express themselves in Parliament (Article 105(1)). 
2. Immunity from Legal Proceedings: Members are protected from court action for anything said or any vote cast in Parliament or its committees (Article 105(2)). 
3. Protection for Publications: No court proceedings can be initiated against individuals for publishing reports, papers, votes, or proceedings authorized by Parliament (Article 105(2)). 
4. Exemption from Judicial Inquiry: Courts cannot question the validity of parliamentary proceedings on grounds of procedural irregularities (Article 122(1)). 
5. Freedom from Arrest: Members are exempt from arrest in civil cases during sessions, as well as 40 days before and after the session (Section 135A, Code of Civil Procedure, 1908). 

Article 356 : President Rule

The President’s Rule (Article 356), also known as the Governor’s Rule, refers to a period when the constitutional machinery in a State has failed, and the State government is unable to function in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.

Constitutional Provisions Related to President’s Rule

Article 355 to Article 357 in Part XVIII and Article 365 in Part XIX of the Indian Constitution are related to the President’s Rule. The Articles with subject matters are explained below:

Article 355 Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance

Article 356 Provisions in case of failure of Constitutional Machinery in States

Article 357 Exercise of legislative powers under proclamation issued under Article 356

Article 365 Effect of failure to comply with, or to give effect to, directions given by the Union.

Grounds of Imposition of President’s Rule

1. As per Article 355, the Indian Constitution imposes a duty on the Centre to protect every State against external aggression and internal disturbance and to ensure that the government of every State is carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.

2. It is this duty in the performance of which the Centre takes over the government of a State under Article 356 in case of failure of Constitutional Machinery in the State.

3. The President’s Rule can be proclaimed under Article 356 on two grounds:

4. Provisions under Article 356, and

5. Provisions under Article 365.

Doctrine of Territorial Nexus

The Doctrine of Territorial Nexus, rooted in Article 245 of the Indian Constitution, allows state legislatures to make laws with extra-territorial effects if a real and substantial connection exists between the state and the subject matter of the legislation. 

Salient Features of Doctrine of Territorial Nexus

1. As per this doctrine, the State’s legislature may make laws for the entire state or for any part of it.
2. The state legislature cannot adopt extraterritorial legislation unless there is a significant connection or nexus between the state and the object.
3. This doctrine governs the taxation of non-residents in India.

Landmark Case Laws of Doctrine of Territorial Nexus

1. In A.H. Wadia v. Income Tax Commissioner (1948), the Bombay High Court held that a question of extraterritoriality of enactment can never be raised against a Supreme Legislative Authority on the grounds of questioning its validity.

2. In State of Bombay v. RMDC (1952), the Supreme Court held that there existed a sufficient Territorial Nexus to enable the Bombay Legislature to tax the respondent as all the activities which the competitor is ordinarily expected to undertake took place mostly within Bombay.

Doctrine of Pleasure

Doctrine of Pleasure of the President of India

The "Doctrine of Pleasure" in the Indian context, rooted in English common law, means that civil servants, members of the Defence Services, or the Civil Services of the Union, or All-India Services hold office during the pleasure of the President. This implies the President can terminate their services at any time without prior notice or a specific reason. 

Constitutional Provisions in Relation to Doctrine of Pleasure?

1. As per Article 155 of the Constitution of India, 1950 (COI), the Governor of a State is appointed by the President and holds the office during the pleasure of the President.

2. Article 310 states that the civil servants (members of the Defence Services, Civil Services, All-India Services or persons holding military posts or civil posts under the Centre/State) hold office at the pleasure of the President or the Governor as the case may be.

Constitutional position of Prime Minister of India

The Prime Minister of India, as per the Constitution, is the head of the government, appointed by the President, and is the leader of the Council of Ministers, which is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. 

Appointment:

The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of India, typically the leader of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament). 

Head of the Council of Ministers:

The Prime Minister heads the Council of Ministers, which is responsible for advising and assisting the President in the exercise of their functions. 

Collective Responsibility:

The Council of Ministers, including the Prime Minister, is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha, meaning that the government can be forced to resign if it loses the confidence of the majority in the Lok Sabha. 

Constitutional Provisions:

1. Article 74(1): There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President. 

2. Article 75(1): The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President, and the other ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. 

3. Article 75(3): The Council of Ministers shall be collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. 

Doctrine of Vicarious Liability

The doctrine of vicarious liability, also known as imputed liability, holds one person responsible for the actions of another due to a specific relationship between them, such as employer-employee or principal-agent, even if the first person didn't directly cause the harm. 

Definition:

Vicarious liability is a legal principle where a person (the principal) is held liable for the wrongful acts of another person (the agent or employee) based on the relationship between them. 

Key Relationships:

This doctrine commonly applies in relationships like employer-employee, where an employer can be held liable for the actions of their employees, or principal-agent, where a principal can be held liable for the actions of their agent. 

Basis of Liability:

The principle behind vicarious liability is that the principal has the right, ability, or duty to control the actions of the agent or employee, and therefore should be held responsible for their actions within the scope of that control. 

Examples:

An employer might be held vicariously liable for an employee's negligence that causes injury to a third party while the employee is working. 

A company can be held liable for the actions of its directors, as directors are the ones who act on behalf of the company. 

Elements of Vicarious Liability:

Wrongful Act: The agent or employee must have committed a wrongful act. 

Scope of Employment/Agency: The agent or employee must have been acting within the scope of their employment or agency. 

Control: The principal must have had the ability to control the agent or employee. 

Distinction from Strict Liability:

While both vicarious liability and strict liability are forms of liability that don't require proof of fault, vicarious liability is based on the relationship between the parties, whereas strict liability is imposed regardless of the relationship. 

"Respondeat Superior":

The doctrine of vicarious liability is closely related to the Latin phrase "respondeat superior," which means "let the superior respond" and refers to the employer's responsibility for the actions of their employees. 

Case References

1. Pushpabai Purshottam Udeshi & Ors vs. Ranjit Ginning & Pressing (1977)

The owner of a company was held vicariously liable because his servant committed an accident while driving on company business.

2. Sitaram Motilal Kalal vs. Santanuprasad Jaishankar Bhatt (1966)

An owner was held liable for injuries caused by a person who was learning to drive his taxi, even though the owner was not present at the time of the accident.

Modes of acquisition of Possession

The primary modes of acquiring possession are by taking (occupation), delivery, and operation of law. Taking involves acquiring possession of a thing without a previous possessor or against their will, while delivery is a voluntary transfer of possession from one person to another. Operation of law refers to possession acquired through legal processes or events. 

Taking (Occupation):

This involves acquiring possession of a thing without a previous possessor or against their will. 

It can be:

Original: When the thing being taken control of had no previous possessor (e.g., finding abandoned property). 

Derivative: When a person occupies an object that has a possessor, but against the possessor's will, which is usually a wrongful act. 

Delivery:

This is the voluntary transfer of possession from one person to another. 

It can be:

Actual delivery: Physically handing over the object. 

Constructive delivery: Transferring possession even without a change in physical custody of the goods. 

Operation of Law:

Possession is acquired through legal processes or events, such as inheritance, prescription, or court orders. 

For example, inheriting property from a deceased person is an acquisition of possession by operation of law. 

State

In jurisprudence, a "state" refers to a political entity with a defined territory, population, government, and sovereignty, which is the ultimate authority within its borders. 

Here's a more detailed explanation:

Definition:

A state is a political organization that regulates society and the population within a definite territory. 

Essential Elements:

Population: A group of people residing within the territory. 

Territory: A defined geographical area under the state's jurisdiction. 

Government: The political authority that makes and enforces laws. 

Sovereignty: The supreme power or authority of the state to govern itself and its territory, free from external control. 

Functions of the State:

Establishment of Order and Security: The state's primary function is to maintain order and security within its territory. 

Enforcement of Laws: The state has the power to make and enforce laws, ensuring compliance by its citizens. 

Types of States:

Unitary State: A state where all power is concentrated in a central government. 

Federal State: A state where power is divided between a central government and regional governments (states). 

Sovereignty:

Internal Sovereignty: The state's supreme authority within its own territory. 

External Sovereignty: The state's independence from external control. 

Jurisprudence and the State:

1. Jurisprudence, the study of law, examines the nature, purpose, and function of the state and its relationship to law. 

2. Jurisprudence explores different theories about the origin and justification of the state. 

Examples:

1. The United States is a federal state with a central government and state governments. 

2. India is a unitary state with a central government that has the ultimate authority. 

Duty

In jurisprudence, a "duty" refers to a legal obligation to act or refrain from acting, with a corresponding right vested in another, and the breach of which is a wrong, enforced by the state. 

Definition:

A duty, in a legal context, is an obligation imposed by law or contract, requiring an individual to conform their actions to a specific standard. 

Examples:

Legal Duties: Paying taxes, refraining from violence, following traffic laws, and fulfilling contractual obligations are examples of legal duties. 

Moral Duties: While moral duties exist, they are not legally enforceable. 

Ownership - Meaning, Definition and Kinds

Ownership 

Meaning of Ownership

Ownership is the legal right to use, possess , and give away a thing. Ownership can be tangible such as personal property and land, or it can be of intangible things such as intellectual property rights.

Definition of Ownership

In jurisprudence, ownership is a legal relationship between a person and a property, recognized and protected by law, granting the owner the right to possess, use, dispose of, and even destroy the object, essentially representing the highest level of interest in that property. 

Key Definitions of Ownership

Holland: Defines ownership as "a plenary control over an object". 

Austin: Describes ownership as "a right indefinite in point of user, unrestricted in point of disposition and unlimited in point of duration". 

Black's Law Dictionary: Defines ownership as "a set of rights to use and enjoy the property, including the right to transmit it to others". 

Essential Elements of Ownership

In jurisprudence, the essentials of ownership revolve around the rights to possess, use, manage, and transfer a property, as well as the right to exclude others and enjoy the benefits derived from it. 

Right to Possess: The owner has the exclusive right to hold and control the property. 

Right to Use: The owner can utilize the property as they see fit, within legal limits. 

Right to Manage: The owner has the authority to decide how the property is used and managed. 

Right to Alienate/Dispose: The owner can transfer ownership or dispose of the property to others. 

Right to Income/Benefits: The owner is entitled to any income or benefits generated by the property. 

Right to Exclude: The owner can prevent others from interfering with their ownership or use of the property. 

Indefinite Duration: Ownership is generally permanent unless voluntarily transferred or legally revoked. 

Absolute Right: Ownership confers total legal control over an asset, including the right to use or modify it. 

Transferability: Ownership can be transferred through sale, inheritance, or gift. 

Kinds of Ownership

Under jurisprudence, ownership can be categorized into various kinds, including corporeal and incorporeal, sole and co-ownership, legal and equitable, vested and contingent, and trust and beneficial ownership. 

1. Corporeal vs. Incorporeal Ownership:
Corporeal ownership:
Refers to ownership of tangible, physical objects, like a house, land, or machinery.
Incorporeal ownership:
Relates to ownership of intangible rights, such as copyrights, patents, trademarks, or the right of way. 

2. Sole vs. Co-ownership:
Sole ownership: Occurs when ownership is vested in a single person. 
Co-ownership: Happens when ownership is shared among multiple individuals, like in a partnership or tenancy in common. 

3. Legal vs. Equitable Ownership:
Legal ownership: Refers to the formal or title ownership, as recognized by law.
Equitable ownership: Represents the beneficial interest or right to enjoyment of the property, even if the legal title is held by someone else. 

4. Vested vs. Contingent Ownership:
Vested ownership:
The ownership right is complete and immediate, with no conditions or contingencies.
Contingent ownership:
The ownership right is dependent on the fulfillment of a condition or event in the future. 

5. Trust and Beneficial Ownership:
Trust ownership:
A legal arrangement where one party (the trustee) holds assets for the benefit of another party (the beneficiary).
Beneficial ownership:
The right to enjoy the benefits of the property, even if the legal title is held by someone else (the trustee). 

 Independence of Judiciary

Judicial independence ensures the judiciary operates free from undue influence or control by other branches of government or external forces, allowing judges to make impartial decisions based on law and facts. 

Definition:

Judicial independence means the judiciary, including individual judges and the court system as a whole, is free from external pressures or influences, particularly from the executive and legislative branches. 

Importance:

Upholding the Rule of Law: An independent judiciary is crucial for ensuring that laws are applied fairly and impartially, and that everyone is subject to the law, regardless of their position or power. 
Protecting Citizens' Rights: An independent judiciary can safeguard citizens' rights by acting as a check on the power of the government and other actors. 
Maintaining Public Trust: Public confidence in the justice system is essential, and this is undermined when the judiciary is perceived as being under the influence of other branches of government or external forces. 

Key Elements:

Security of Tenure: Judges should have secure tenure, meaning they cannot be removed from office for political reasons or for expressing unpopular opinions. 
Financial Autonomy: The judiciary should have control over its budget and resources, free from undue interference from the executive branch. 
Judicial Review: The power of judicial review, where the judiciary can review the constitutionality of laws and actions of other branches of government, is a key element of judicial independence. 
Impartiality: Judges must be impartial and free from bias or prejudice when making decisions. 
Freedom from External Pressure: Judges should be free from undue influence or pressure from any source, including the media, political parties, or powerful individuals. 

Examples of Threats to Judicial Independence:

1. Political interference in judicial appointments or transfers. 
2. Attempts to influence judicial decisions through intimidation or coercion. 
3. Restrictions on the judiciary's ability to exercise judicial review. 
4. Lack of financial resources or resources to carry out their duties. 

Constitutional Protection for Independence of Judiciary

The Indian Constitution ensures judicial independence through provisions like security of tenure for judges, fixed service conditions, removal only by impeachment, and judicial review powers, preventing undue influence from the legislature or executive. 

Separation of Powers:

The Constitution establishes a separation of powers among the legislature, executive, and judiciary, ensuring each branch operates independently. 

Security of Tenure:

Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts enjoy security of tenure, meaning they cannot be removed easily, except through a complex impeachment process. 

This is enshrined in Articles 124 and 217 respectively. 

Fixed Service Conditions:

The salaries, allowances, and other service conditions of judges are fixed and cannot be altered to their disadvantage, preventing financial coercion. 

This is guaranteed under Articles 125 and 221. 

Removal Only by Impeachment:

Judges can be removed only through a parliamentary impeachment process, not by executive whim. 

This is detailed in Articles 124(4) and 217(1)(b). 

Power of Judicial Review:

Courts have the power of judicial review, allowing them to examine the constitutionality of laws and actions of the government. 

This is enshrined in Articles 32 and 226. 

No Discussion in Legislature:

The Parliament cannot discuss the conduct of judges, except during impeachment proceedings. 

This is outlined in Article 121. 

Contempt Powers:

Courts have the power to punish for contempt, ensuring compliance with their authority. 

This is outlined in Articles 129 and 215. 

Case References

1. S.P. Gupta v. Union of India (1981) (The First Judges Case): 

• This case addressed the issue of judicial appointments and transfers, particularly the role of the executive in these processes. 
• The court ruled that the executive's power in these matters should be limited, and that the judiciary should have a significant say in its own composition. 
• It established that the independence of the judiciary is a fundamental aspect of the Constitution. 

2. Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association v. Union of India (1993) (The Second Judges Case):

• This case further solidified the judiciary's independence by emphasizing the need for a collegial system for judicial appointments. 
• The court held that the independence of the judiciary is necessary for democracy to function effectively. 
• It stressed that the judiciary should be free from external pressures or influences, particularly from the executive and legislature. 

3. The Third Judges Case (1998):

• The Supreme Court, in this case, reiterated the principles laid down in the Second Judges Case. 
• It further clarified the role of the Chief Justice of India in the appointment and transfer of judges.